Film & Television Rhetoric - Projecting Race and Ethnicity

The text that I have selected for my discussion of projecting race and ethnicities is the 2015 biographical drama film, Straight Outta Compton (Gray, 2015). There are multiple reasons for my decision, the primary one being due to the film's overt representation of African American’s during a time of violent oppression (1980s). ‘You are now about to witness the strength of street knowledge’ is a statement that occurs both at the start and end of this film (Collin, 2015, [online]), immediately providing us with a stereotypical 1980s portrayal of African Americans and their link to the “streets” (Boyd, 2008, p.201).

Before diving into how Straight Outta Compton conveys race and ethnicities, it is worth briefly discussing the history of race and its representation in early cinema. Two of the most prominent figures in black history and the fight against oppression and segregation were Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King (Banks, 2012, p.683). Their combined efforts spurred the Civil Rights Movement which eventually brought an end to segregation in the United States (Crosby, 2011, p.411).

In early cinema, race was represented through biological determinism and racial essentialism (Teslow, 2014, p.2) and this is somewhat evident within Straight Outta Compton. Throughout this film, we see the main characters involved with guns, drugs, violence and sex; all features which we can associate with early stereotypical constructions of African American males (Graham & Hall, 2013, p.55). Despite this film being set after the Civil Rights Movement it still portrays white supremacy through discrimination from the police, most of which are white, and even their own manager, Jerry Heller who essentially deceives the entire NWA collective. 

This motion picture is also a strong example of both black empowerment and blaxploitation. Weissberg outlined black empowerment as how African Americans saw political control as a way to ‘remedy their plight’ (Weissberg, 1999, p.191). Although it doesn’t always, Straight Outta Compton does convey this. The NWA group depicted within the film arguably have political power through their fame, meaning that discrimination against them is lessened and they can rival against sources of white supremacy like the police (hence the lyric “f*** the police…”). 

In contrast, Straight Outta Compton does portray themes of blaxploitation as well. Gates argued that blaxploitation took ‘Hollywood stereotypes of black masculinity as violent, dangerous, and hypersexual… and blew them out of proportion’ (Gates, 2011, p.195). Now although this film revolves around music; themes of violence, sex and danger are heavily evident to the point of one character contracting HIV. It represents this “ghetto life” which exploits blaxploitation and constructs the African American characters as “gangsters”, not to mention that the film has underlying political messages within its crime and drug representation.

To conclude, I believe that Straight Outta Compton provides a very strong and complex representation of race. On the one hand, we sympathise with and like these characters but on the other, they are involved in things we are intended to disapprove off. Even though this film gives of a mixed representation of race, it is worth noting that it was attempting to accurately portray life for African Americans in Compton during the 1980s.

Bibliography:

Banks, J. (2012). Encyclopedia of diversity in education. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Boyd, T. (2008). African Americans and popular culture. Westport, Conn.: Praeger.

Collin, R. (2015). Straight Outta Compton review: 'the real American Hustle'. [online] The Telegraph. Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/film/straight-outta-compton/review/ [Accessed 1 Dec. 2015].

Crosby, E. (2011). Civil rights history from the ground up. Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press.

Gates, P. (2011). Detecting women. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Graham, C. and Hall, K. (2013). The cultural context of sexual pleasure and problems. New York, NY: Routledge.

Teslow, T. (2014). Constructing race.

Weissberg, R. (1999). The politics of empowerment. Westport, Conn.: Praeger.

Film & Television Rhetoric - Gendered Gaze

The text that I have selected for my discussion of the gendered gaze is the popular US sitcom, Two and a Half Men. There are numerous reasons for my decision, obviously it is a very well recognised show but the main reason is due to its strong and arguably controversial depiction of gender. Many have discredited and criticised the show for its inherently negative portrayal of females and even males (Schroeder, 2012, [online]) therefore, I feel it would be very interesting to observe the programme from a gendered gaze perspective.

Now, it is worth noting that the theory of the gaze is rather vast and complex, various theorists have offered alternating perspectives and criticisms which can make it difficult to pin down. One of the most prominent theories in regard to early gaze study was Jacques Lacan’s “mirror stage”, which ‘stresses the illusory nature of the mastery that the child experiences while looking in the mirror’ (McGowan, 2007, p.2).

Moving on to more contemporary and relevant areas of gaze theory, we can begin to look at how Two and a Half Men exerts both the male and female gaze. Filmic theorist Laura Mulvey associates ‘male position with “active” and female position with “passive”’ (Hein, 2008, p.4) which is undoubtedly relevant when discussing Two and a Half Men. Although the male characters are more active, it is worth noting that the recurring female characters who could be considered active (e.g. Berta, Rose) are far less sexualised than the passive supporting female characters (e.g. Kandi, Courtney). This is best evident through the character of Chelsea, who became less sexualised as her presence grew on the show.

Mulvey’s narrative cinema theory presented the female as an object of male desire and the signifier of a threat of castration (Ibid). She also proposed scopophilia declaring that pleasure comes from ‘using another person as an object of sexual stimulation through sight’ (Carilli & Campbell, 2005, p.6). Within Two and a Half Men, most of the female characters we see are the conventionally attractive one night stands and to not sleep with woman like that becomes a point of ridicule.

In contrast, Jackie Stacey put across this idea of the female gaze which is ‘not so much erotic as a desire to become more like the other woman’ (Hollows, 2000, p.57), meaning that characters like Kandi become more of a goal in terms of their body and appearance rather than a source of sexual desire among female viewers. However, she also states that there can be evidence, though not exclusively, of ‘homoerotic desire’ (Ibid). This isn’t focussing on lesbian spectatorship as much as questioning the heterosexuality of the female viewer. Using Kandi as an example again, she not only becomes a symbol of envy with heterosexual female spectators but she can also be a figure of eroticism.

To conclude, I believe that Two and a Half Men is a strong example of the gaze theory and how it can impact the representation of gender. However, as McKay suggested (McKay, 2005), I feel there is a need for more studies regarding the male elements of gaze and gender theory.

Bibliography:

Carilli, T. and Campbell, J. (2005). Women and the media. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America.

Hein, C. (2008). Laura Mulvey, Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema. GRIN Verlag.

Hollows, J. (2000). Feminism, femininity, and popular culture. Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press.

IMDb, (2015). Two and a Half Men (TV Series 2003–2015). [online] Available at: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0369179/ [Accessed 25 Nov. 2015].

McGowan, T. (2007). The real gaze. Albany: State University of New York Press.

McKay, J. (2005). Gentlemen, The Lunchbox Has Landed. California: Sage, pp.270-288.

Schroeder, J. (2012). Two and a Half Shades of Masculinity -. [online] The Good Men Project. Available at: http://goodmenproject.com/arts/two-and-a-half-shades-of-masculinity/ [Accessed 25 Nov. 2015].

Film & Television Rhetoric - Sound Effects

The text that I have selected for my discussion of sound and sound effects is the popular UK reality and competition show, The Apprentice. There are various reasons for my decision, the most obvious one being due to the sheer popularity of the show, with the opening episode of this year’s series attracting 6.4 million viewers (Sweney, 2015, [online]). Also it is consistently contemporary to discussions regarding television due to its annual broadcasting schedule; it has been on screens since May 2005 (IMDb, 2015, [online]). 

I have specifically chosen a television text to analyse because of its reliance upon sound, Dorai and Venkatesh declared that sound has been an ‘essential part of television from its very inception’ (Dorai & Venkatesh, 2002, p.32). 

Now, Aaron Koh stated that ‘non diegetic sound is in itself a semiotic code designed as a convenient shorthand to evoke meanings, moods and identifications’ (Koh, 2010, p.129). The Apprentice is a very good example of this through its use of non-diegetic empathetic sounds. This is evident within any of the tasks set by Sir Alan Sugar; we can notice action sounds if the team in shot are rushing, gloomy sounds if they aren’t doing well and upbeat sounds if they have achieved something. Overall this enhances the emotion within a scene (Crook, 1999, p.88) and imprints the feel of the visuals.

This type of sound is primarily used as a ‘form of direct address’ to the audience (Pramaggiore & Wallis, 2005, p.210) and is most relevant when observing the character of Alan Sugar. The construction of him as intimidating is deeply rooted in the application of sound; it often builds the suspense and anticipation of his presence before we even see him. This loosely links to Peter Hutching’s ideas, not that Alan Sugar is a “monster” but by building the mood before we see him it constructs him as intimidating and somewhat fearful (Hutchings, 2004).

The Apprentice is also very effective in its use of diegetic sounds when it comes to evoking meaning. This is best seen through the conversations on the show, one of the best examples is during the boardroom scenes when we know through language expression and tone that it’s a heated situation. Dorai and Venkatesh stated that diegetic sound should ‘advance the story’ through its meaning (Dorai & Venkatesh, p.32) and the boardroom scene is a perfect example of this, through their arguing and conversations we eventually see one being fired which advances the competition.

Through these diegetic sounds comes the creation of a particular, and now nationally recognised, sound motif (Evans, 2006, p.262-263). The iconic “you’re fired” is the catchphrase on the show which rounds off every episode except the last of the series. It is fair to say that the saying has become instantly recognisable of the series and even has a spin off show named after it, The Apprentice: You’re Fired.

To conclude, I feel that the application of sound within The Apprentice works extremely well for its purpose and arguably, it could even be as important to the meaning as the actual visual image.

Bibliography:

Crook, T. (1999). Radio drama. London: Routledge.

Dorai, C. and Venkatesh, S. (2002). Media computing. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Evans, R. (2006). Practical DV filmmaking. Amsterdam: Elsevier Focal Press.

Hutchings, P. (2004). The Horror Film. Harlow: Pearson, pp.127-147.

IMDb, (2015). The Apprentice (TV Series 2005– ). [online] Available at: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0450897/ [Accessed 22 Nov. 2015].

Koh, A. (2010). Tactical globalization. New York: Peter Lang.

Pramaggiore, M. and Wallis, T. (2005). Film. London: Laurence King.

Sweney, M. (2015). The Apprentice recruits 6.4m viewers. [online] the Guardian. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/media/2015/oct/15/the-apprentice-audience-bbc [Accessed 22 Nov. 2015].

Film & Television Rhetoric - Narrative

The text that I have selected for my discussion of narrative is the popular US sitcom, How I Met Your Mother. There are multiple reasons for my decision, the main one being due to the show’s mainstream success and overall critical acclaim (IMDb, 2015, [online]). The CBS comedy ended its nine-year run with an hour long finale that attracted an average of 12.9 million viewers and earned a 5.3 rating among viewers under 50 (Adalian, 2014, [online]). 

The show itself revolves around the life of Ted Mosby (Josh Radnor) and his four friends finding their way in New York City. The actual story synopsis is pretty much what the title implies; it is Ted retelling the story of how he met his wife to his son and daughter (the audience). That is the story of this sitcom (the sequence of events), the plot is its episodic structure (how it is shown) and the narrative is the episodes themselves (what we see).

Taking the pilot episode as an example, How I Met Your Mother strongly conforms to Nguyen’s five stages of narrative (Nguyen, 2012, p.84). These are exposition, development, complication, climax and resolution. This episode conforms to each of these stages; the scene is immediately set in New York City, more specifically in Maclaren’s Pub and Ted’s apartment (exposition). A situation develops and Robin is introduced to Ted and the audience (development). The equilibrium is disrupted by Ted’s lust for Robin and him missing his chance to make a move on their date (complication). Ted finally gets his chance when they resume their date but he messes up again leaving him thinking he’ll never see her again (climax). However, in the end he does see her again and they decide to be friends (resolution).

One of the most prominent features within narrative study is the idea of time, how a show manipulates or uses time to convey a particular meaning to the audience. In this case, I would argue that How I Met Your Mother employs both a ‘temporal order’ and a ‘temporal frequency’ (Bordwell & Thompson, 2008, p.75-76). This is due to the show using a lot of flashbacks which interrupt the chronology of the narrative and therefore, the ‘order’. Also because the show often displays the same scenario repeatedly from different characters perspectives, the frequency will increase which could change the meaning behind a scene.

How I Met Your Mother follows a conventional goal-oriented narrative (Bordwell & Thompson, p.80-81) seeing as Ted is constantly looking for “the one”, which is the ultimate goal. Even though he doesn’t meet her for seasons to come, his ‘drive to achieve the goal carries us through the story to a resolution’ (Cooper & Dancyger, 2005).

To conclude, I would argue that How I Met Your Mother’s mainstream success comes partly from it following regular narrative conventions. I feel that if it went against convention and used, say a distorted or unusual narrative structure, it would be much less favourable among its audience.

Bibliography:

Adalian, J. (2014). Ratings: How I Met Your Mother Exits With Its Biggest Audience Ever. [online] Vulture. Available at: http://www.vulture.com/2014/04/ratings-how-i-met-your-mother-exits-with-best-numbers-ever.html# [Accessed 20 Oct. 2015].

Bordwell, D. and Thompson, K. (2008). Film art. Boston: McGraw Hill.

Cooper, P. and Dancyger, K. (2005). Writing the short film. Burlington, MA: Elsevier/Focal Press.

IMDb, (2015). How I Met Your Mother (TV Series 2005–2014). [online] Available at: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0460649/ [Accessed 20 Oct. 2015].

Nguyen, V. (2012). Peter and Cornelius.

Film & Television Rhetoric - The Auteur

The auteur that I have selected for my focus in regard to the discussion of authorship is the renowned film director, Danny Boyle. His most notable works include blockbusters like Trainspotting (1996), Slumdog Millionaire (2008), 28 Days Later (2002) and 127 Hours (2010). Boyle’s films have seen him be awarded with numerous accolades, including best director for Slumdog Millionaire and even movie of the year for 127 Hours (IMDb, 2015, [online]). He is widely considered to be one of the best British directors of all time (Telegraph.co.uk, 2007, [online]).

Seeing as my topic is authorship, it goes without saying that we need to talk about the auteur theory and how that relates to my selected director. Originating from France, the word auteur literally translates to mean author. The theory itself only came to prominence in the late 1940s and essentially argues that the director of a motion picture is more likely to be considered the auteur than the actual screenwriter (Wollen, 1972, p.74-80). This is due to the director's control over the numerous aspects of a film, both the visual and audio elements. The auteur theory also argues that directors have their own personal ‘stamp’ and are ultimately a “brand” as opposed to being just a director (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2014, [online]).

Now, although it’s a debatable theory and many have disagreed, it wouldn’t be too difficult to apply ideas from the auteur theory to Boyle’s films and depict his personal “stamp”. For example, most of his movies tend to contain graphic content, Trainspotting displays addicts injecting heroin and 127 Hours portrays a desperate man cutting his own arm off. Also, his films often tackle extreme situations, like a zombie outbreak in 28 Days Later and a rags to riches story in Slumdog Millionaire. In terms of cinematography, a trademark of Boyles is his ‘energetic visual style’ (Tikkanen, 2015, [online]). During an interview in 2013, Boyle himself said that ‘I like my films to be visceral - to burst right through the door at the beginning’ (Yorkshirepost.co.uk, 2013, [online]).

In an essay he wrote in 1968, Roland Barthes put across this idea of ‘the death of the author’. Essentially, Barthes’ argument is that the reader is as important as the text and it is the text itself that is vital when constructing meaning, not the author. Obviously this goes against the auteur theory in the sense that Barthes is dismissing the influence of the author and focussing upon the text itself, stating that ‘the death of the author is the birth of the reader’ (Allen, 2013, p.73-77). This theory was dismissed by Foucault, who believed that critics needed to recognise that authorship is essentially a function (Ede & Lunsford, 1990, p.88).

To conclude, I believe that the author does in fact play a major role in both the production and meaning of a text, I don’t think they can just be ignored. I also feel as though Danny Boyle does have his own stamp which is why his films are so anticipated and popular, because of him and his reputation.

Bibliography:

Allen, G. (2003). Roland Barthes. London: Routledge.

Ede, L. and Lunsford, A. (1990). Singular texts, plural authors. Carbondale u.a.: Southern Illinois Univ. Press.

Encyclopedia Britannica, (2014). auteur theory | filmmaking. [online] Available at: http://www.britannica.com/art/auteur-theory [Accessed 27 Oct. 2015].

IMDb, (1956). Danny Boyle. [online] Available at: http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000965/ [Accessed 27 Oct. 2015].

IMDb, (2015). Danny Boyle. [online] Available at: http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000965/awards [Accessed 27 Oct. 2015].

Telegraph.co.uk, (2007). The top 21 British directors of all time. [online] Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/starsandstories/3664474/The-top-21-British-directors-of-all-time.html [Accessed 27 Oct. 2015].

Tikkanen, A. (2015). Danny Boyle | biography - British filmmaker. [online] Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: http://www.britannica.com/biography/Danny-Boyle [Accessed 27 Oct. 2015].

Wollen, P. (1972). Signs and meaning in the cinema. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Yorkshirepost.co.uk, (2013). Danny Boyle: ‘I like my films to be visceral – to burst right through the door at the beginning’. [online] Available at: http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/features/danny-boyle-i-like-my-films-to-be-visceral-to-burst-right-through-the-door-at-the-beginning-1-5526066 [Accessed 27 Oct. 2015].